Cambridge IGCSE History - Core content: Option B  Topic 4


The Cold War (1945 - 1990)


Focus Points
• Why did the USA-USSR alliance begin to break down in 1945?
• How had the USSR gained control of Eastern Europe by 1948?
• How did the USA react to Soviet expansionism?
• What were the consequences of the Berlin Blockade?
• Who was the more to blame for starting the Cold War: the USA or the USSR?
• Why was there opposition to Soviet control in Hungary in 1956 and Czechoslovakia in 1968, and how did the USSR react to this opposition?
• How similar were events in Hungary in 1956 and in Czechoslovakia in 1968?
• Why was the Berlin Wall built in 1961?
• What was the significance of ‘Solidarity’ in Poland for the decline of Soviet influence in Eastern Europe?
• How far was Gorbachev personally responsible for the collapse of Soviet control over Eastern Europe?

 Specified Content
• The origins of the Cold War:
   o the 1945 summit conferences and the breakdown of the USA-USSR alliance in 1945–6
   o Soviet expansion into Eastern Europe to 1948, and American reactions to it
   o the occupation of Germany and the Berlin Blockade.
• Soviet power in Eastern Europe:
   o resistance to Soviet power in Hungary (1956) and Czechoslovakia (1968): Listen to Audio Revision by Mr Allsop
   o the Berlin Wall
   o ‘Solidarity’ in Poland
   o Gorbachev and the collapse of the Soviet Empire. Listen to Audio Revision by Mr Allsop

Listen to revision podcast by Mr Allsop

Yalta & Potsdam Conferences


What decisions, in relation to Germany, were agreed at Yalta and Potsdam?
That Germany should be divided up.
It was agreed at Yalta that Germany should be divided into zones of occupation, one
controlled by USSR, one by the USA, one by Britain and one by France.
Berlin, deep in the Soviet zone, would also be divided into four similar sections.
It was agreed to hunt down and punish war criminals.
At Potsdam, it was agreed that Germany and Berlin would be divided as stated at Yalta.
It was agreed that the Allies should receive reparations from Germany.
The Nazi Party was banned and its leaders were to be tried as war criminals.
It was agreed that Germans living in Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia would be sent back to Germany.

What was decided at the Yalta Conference of February 1945?
How to organise Europe at the end of the War. Germany was to be defeated and then disarmed.
Germany was to be divided into four zones of occupation, which to be controlled by USA, USSR, Br and Fr.
Germany would have to pay reparations.  Berlin was to be in the Soviet zone and to be divided into four.
Once Germany was defeated, the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan.
A United Nations Organisation to be set up to keep the peace.
As east European countries are liberated, they were to hold free elections to set up democratic governments.
In Poland free elections were to be held. There were to be adjustments to the Polish/USSR border.
Eastern Europe would become a sphere of influence for the USSR.

What did Stalin gain from the Yalta Conference? [5]
One Soviet zone in Germany; one Soviet zone in Berlin. (2 marks)
That eastern Europe should be seen as a Soviet sphere of influence
His plans for Polands boundaries. This included a large amount of territory from eastern Poland. (2 marks)
Prisoners of war from Soviet territories were returned to the USSR to be dealt with.
An agreement that the USSR could enter the war against Japan.
An agreement that each country should have a veto on the decisions of the Security Council.

Why was it difficult to reach agreement at the Potsdam Conference? [7]
Why did tensions between the USSR and the Western Allies increase at the Potsdam conference?
Because the USSR and the West held differing views regarding the future of Germany and Eastern Europe.
The West was suspicious of the activities of the USSR.  Truman was less trusting of Stalin than Roosevelt.
They disagreed over Soviet policy in eastern Europe. Soviet troops had liberated countries in Eastern Europe but instead of withdrawing his troops, Stalin had left them there. By the time of the Conference, Stalins troops controlled the Baltic States. Refugees were fleeing from these states fearing a Communist take-over.
Stalin had set up a Communist government in Poland, ignoring the wishes of the majority of Poles. Britain and the USA protested but Stalin insisted it was a defensive measure against possible future attacks.
Roosevelt had died and been replaced by Truman who was much more anti-Communist and suspicious of Stalin. Truman saw Stalins actions as preparations for a Soviet take-over of the rest of Europe.
Truman informed Stalin at the start of the Conference that the USA had successfully tested
an atomic bomb, leading to increased suspicion and tension.

What was agreed at the Potsdam Conference? Aug 1945
What to do about Germany. To have war trials. Japan would be attacked as planned.
Anything of value could be taken from Germany as reparations.  USSR to have additional reparations.
Details of German zones of occupation finalised.
Industrial equipment could be taken from own zone in Germany as reparations.
Nuremberg trials set up to deal with Nazi war criminals.
Eastern border of Poland to be moved west and all non-Poles sent back to Germany.
Germans living in Hungary and Czechoslovakia sent back to Germany.



Cold War - general questions


What was the Iron Curtain?
A term introduced by Churchill.   The idea of West versus East.    A guarded border.
The border between the Soviet-controlled countries and the West.  A denial of freedom and democracy.
USSR dominated countries following Potsdam.   The mythical division of Europe into two halves.  
Separation of free democratic states from communist dominated ones.

Why was Eastern Europe largely in the hands of the USSR by 1946?
Because they were occupied by the Soviet Union to act as a buffer zone.
Privately Roosevelt and Stalin seemed to accept the other superpowers right to dominate and control their half of Europe – their spheres of influence.
Both super powers left Potsdam determined to keep their half of Europe.
These countries had been occupied by the Nazis during the War and had been liberated by the Soviet Union Red Army. The Soviet Union was determined that these countries remained friendly. The Red Army remained in those countries to ensure that there was a buffer zone against any future attacks from the West.
The democratic elections were rigged by Stalin.

Truman Doctrine / Marshall Plan


Why was the Truman Doctrine significant?
It ensured Greece did not fall to the Communists. In 1945 Britain sent troops to Greece to support the Monarchists against the Communists. In 1947 Britain threatened to withdraw because it could not afford to maintain them. The USA stepped in and offered financial aid for British troops to stay and help maintain the monarchy and won. This was the start of the era of the Truman Doctrine.
 After the First World War, the USA turned its back on Europe and became increasingly isolationist. But the Truman Doctrine marked the beginning of USA being actively involved and taking responsibility for world collaboration and that there would be no more appeasement of dictators. From now on, USA was determined to prevent the spread of Communism. Every Communist action would meet an American reaction.
The Doctrine was significant because the USA was resolved to send money, equipment and advice to any country threatened by a Communist take-over. Trumans aim was containment - to stop communism from spreading further.
It meant money, equipment and advice being invested in receiving countries to recover from WWII.
It contributed to the Cold War and the ongoing tension between the two superpowers. It had widespread consequences. It was to lead to the formation of NATO, the arms race and the heavy involvement of US troops not only in Europe but also in Asia, especially in Korea and Vietnam.

Why did the USA introduce the Marshall Plan?
To help themselves.  Because of the Containment Policy.  To halt communism.
To restore economies.  To improve trade with western Europe.
To help the US stem the flow of communism which they thought developed through poverty.
Truman was worried that Europes economic devastation after WWI would be vulnerable to communist take-over. He was determined to restore economies affected by war so as to provide trading opportunities for American companies. This also ensured an Europe prosper enough to resist communist threat.
Countries struggling to recover the effects of war were vulnerable to communist take over.

Berlin Blockade / Airlift 1948-1949

Why was there continuing tension over Berlin in the years 1945-1949?
Why was Berlin a cause of tension between East and West after the Second World War?
(Note: Allow up to the Wall.) There was no trust.  Berlin was divided into zones of occupation. 
In 1948 USA, Br and Fr zones merged to form West Berlin and introduced a new currency. On one side was capitalism and on the other communism. Stalin thought this was against the Yalta Agreement.
Marshall Aid provided money. There was the Berlin Blockade.
By these actions West Berlin became a small island of capitalism and democracy surrounded by communism.
The USA poured millions of dollars into West Berlin to rebuild it. Stalin was convinced this was a ploy to try to get East Berliners to become envious of what capitalism might give them.
Stalin was angry that the Allies were planning to introduce a new currency. Stalin said this broke the agreements as both superpowers had to agree on any decisions.
Stalin feared that the Allies were planning to reunite Germany and wanted to force the Allies to remove their troops from West Berlin to stop such plans.
USA convinced the world that Stalin was plotting to take over the whole of Ger and then the rest of Europe.
Tension came to a head when Stalin blockaded all road and rail routes into West Berlin. Eventually Stalin had to back down.

Explain why the Soviet Union blockaded Berlin.
Because Stalin opposed what the allies were doing.
To stop the supply of food and goods.  To test resolve.  Zones had been combined.
To stop people wanting to change from communism.
Stalin wanted to keep Germany weak so that it would not be a threat to the USSR.
Stalin opposed the planned introduction of a new currency. The soviets were concerned they were trying to create a new Germany that was wealthier than the Soviet eastern Germany.
They wanted the Socialists of Berlin city council to merge with the communists. This was prevented through western support.
They thought the Western Allies had no right to be in Berlin and saw them as a threat because they had a base in the Soviet Zone and they showed off the capitalist way of life.


8 mark question for the topic:

How far was the Cold War caused by Truman's hostility towards the Soviet Union? [8]
It was Truman not Stalin who brought about the Cold War. How far do you agree? [8]

Each side was to blame because they followed different ideas.  Truman was against Communism.
USA introduced economic aid.  The USA had the atomic bomb.
Soviet Union and USA did not trust each other.  Stalin wanted to spread communism.
The Soviet Union wanted to avoid any future attack.
Eastern Europe was communist controlled.  Stalin set up Cominform and Comecon.
There was the Berlin Blockade.
Truman was more anti-communist than Roosevelt who had got on reasonably well with Stalin.
The USA interpreted the Soviet takeover of eastern Europe as the start of spreading communism around the world and responded with the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan which was to help the vulnerable European economy suffering from the after effects of war. The USSR saw this as a threat.
The fact that the USA had the atom bomb but failed to tell Stalin encouraged Stalin to rush
through the Soviet response and the arms race had started.

AND

USA and USSR held different ideologies of capitalism v communism and actions led to suspicion and hostility as they drifted apart at the end of the war as there was no common enemy. Then came Churchill and his “Iron Curtain” speech. The Soviet Union wanted a weak Germany to avoid any future attack. This was the opposite of what the US wanted. Stalin blockaded Berlin and this affected the relationship.
Following Yalta it was expected that there would be free elections in Eastern Europe countries after their liberation. The Red Army made sure their new governments were communist controlled.
Stalin refused to allow Soviet controlled countries to accept aid as he thought the real
purpose was for the USA to build up friendships with European countries.
European countries set up NATO to help each other if attacked by Stalin. In response, Stalin created the Warsaw Pact. To counter the Marshall Plan, Stalin set up Cominform to strengthen co-operation between communists and Comecon to develop economic cooperation between communist countries.


It was the Soviet expansion in Eastern Europe that caused the Cold War.?
The Soviet Union was to blame for the Cold War. How far do you agree?
Who was more to blame for starting the Cold War, the USA or the USSR?

Each side was to blame because they followed different ideas and did not trust each other.
The USA and the USSR held different ideologies of capitalism and communism and actions
led to suspicion and hostility. They drifted apart as the war had ended and there was no common enemy.

USSR:
Stalin was spreading Communism across Eastern Europe and did not allow free elections. 
Eastern Europe was communist controlled.  Stalin set up Cominform and Comecon. 
Stalin blockaded Berlin.  USSR wanted a weak Germany to avoid any future attack.
Following Yalta, it was expected that there would be free elections in eastern European countries after their liberation. The Red Army made sure their new governments were communist controlled.
To counter the Marshall Plan, Stalin set up Cominform to strengthen co-operation between
communists and Comecon to develop economic co-operation between communist countries.
Stalin had removed non-Communist leaders in Poland, replacing them with Communists. Rather than allowing free elections the USSR began to impose Communist rule on the countries it had occupied.
Stalin refused to reduce the size of the Red Army, the biggest in the world. In Eastern Europe he believed the Soviet leader intended to set up USSR controlled buffer states.
Stalin refused to allow Soviet controlled countries to accept aid as he thought the real purpose was for the USA to build up friendships with European countries.\

USA:
The USA had kept the atomic bomb as secret from Stalin. Stalin was convinced the US would use the bomb to gain world-wide power and so started work on producing one.
Truman was highly suspicious of Stalins motives. He was much less trusting than Roosevelt had been.
USA introduced economic aid. The Marshall Plan was to help the vulnerable European economy suffering from the after effects of war. Stalin refused to allow Soviet bloc countries to accept aid as he thought the real purpose was for the USA to build up friendships with European countries.
USA interpreted the Soviet takeover of E Europe as the start of spreading communism around the world.
She responded with the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan, offering support to peoples struggling to avoid communism. The USSR saw this as a threat.

The west in general:
The West had been against Communism since WWI.
The West was suspicious of Soviet intentions in Eastern Europe.
Harmony was not helped by politicians such as Churchill and his “Iron Curtain” speech and Truman who was more anti-communist than Roosevelt who had got on reasonably well with Stalin.
European countries set up NATO to help each other if attacked by Stalin. Stalin considered this as a threat
The Western Allies accused Stalin of breaking agreements over Germany. The Western Allies wanted Germany to recover as quickly as possible, realising that it would be a barrier against Communism. The USSR wanted a weak Germany.

Which country had the more successful policies towards Europe 1945-1949 – the USA or the USSR?
How successful was the West in containing communism in Europe up to 1949? Explain.
USA:
The USA introduced economic aid.  The USA had the atomic bomb.
The USA wanted Germany to recover as quickly as possible, realising that it would be a barrier against Communism. The USA successfully supported western Berlin with the Berlin Airlift.
The USA responded to Soviet aggression with the Truman Doctrine, which offered support
to any free peoples struggling to avoid communism.
Marshall Plan was devised to help the vulnerable European economy recover after effects of the war.
USA formed NATO, which was designed to enable member countries help each other if attacked by Stalin. It did keep the spread of Communism in check.
The USA gave support to the West in halting the spread of Communism.
The West had success over Berlin.   The Truman Doctrine contained Communism. 
The Marshall Plan improved the chances of keeping countries non-Communist.
Through Truman Doctrine, USA made it clear that it would help any country to stop the spread of Communism. An example of this was in relation to Greece where aid was provided under this policy of containment.
Truman did not want to send troops but wished to attack Communism at its roots. He believed Communism grew out of poverty and so offered Marshall Aid to enable countries to prosper.
Western Allies were frustrated at the Soviet refusal to help the economic recovery of Ger and so decided to develop the economy in their zones. The West managed to defeat Stalins attempts to blockade West Berlin.

USSR:
The USSR spread Communism throughout Eastern Europe.
Stalin did not allow free elections. Stalin set up Cominform and Comecon.
The Soviet Union fixed elections to establish Communist satellites.
The USSR began to impose Communist rule on the countries it had occupied rather than allowing free elections. Stalin had removed non-Communist leaders in Poland, replacing them with Communists.
Stalin had success in countries such as Hungary, Romania and Czechoslovakia where
Communist governments were established.
Stalin refused to allow Soviet controlled countries to accept aid as he thought the real purpose was for the USA to build up friendships with European countries. In opposition to the threat Stalin set up Cominform to strengthen co-operation between communists and Comecon to develop economic co-operation between communist countries.
The USSR was less successful in Yugoslavia where Tito applied Communism in his own
way and Greece where the Communist takeover was unsuccessful.
Having freed much of Eastern Europe from the Nazis, the Red Army remained in occupation and the Soviet Union established Communist governments through fixed elections. This happened in Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria.
Stalin refused to allow Soviet bloc countries to accept Marshall Aid as he thought the real
purpose was for the USA to build up trade and friendships with European countries and,
because of the restrictions to accept Marshall Aid, the containment of Communism.
Despite the West viewing the defeat of the Berlin Blockade as a success, Stalin responded
by turning their zone into the GDR which, in effect, was another Communist state.



************************************


Hungary (1956)

Describe the events in Hungary in 1956.
There was fighting on the streets. It was invaded.
 Rakosi, leader of the Hungarian Communist Party, was forced to resign. His successor, Erno Gero, was not popular and soon began to lose control. Nagy, the PM, wanted to leave the Warsaw pact. This was a threat to Soviet security.
On 6th October thousands turned out to watch state funeral of Rajik.
On 23rd October there was rioting on the streets of Budapest.
Khrushchev sent in tanks but they were withdrawn after a week.
It was announced that Hungary would withdraw from the Warsaw Pact.
On 4th November 200,000 Soviet troops and 2,500 tanks arrived in Budapest.
After two weeks it is thought that 27,000 Hungarians had died and Soviet control restored. Nagy was hanged.

Describe how the Soviet Union reacted to events in Hungary in 1956.
It was brutal.  They employed the military and used force to suppress the reforms. 
Khrushchev sent in tanks but they were withdrawn after a week. On 4th November
200,000 Soviet troops and 2,500 tanks arrived in Budapest.
After two weeks of bitter street fighting, about thousands of Hungarians had died and Soviet control restored.
They executed Nagy and his fellow leaders.  It prevented Hungary from leaving the Warsaw Pact.
The Soviet Union was determined not to let go of countries within its sphere of influence.


Berlin Wall (1961)

Describe how the Berlin Wall affected the people living in Berlin.
It was a physical barrier.     It split Berlin.    West Berlin was cut off from East Berlin.
If you tried to cross you were shot.  It took no account of roads and buildings.
It put some people in communist held area and others in capitalist area. 
It stopped the movement of refugees.  People from the east could not move to the more prosperous west.
There was only one crossing point – Checkpoint Charlie.  Families were divided.

Why was the Berlin Wall built?
As a warning.  To maintain the east-west split.  Because Kennedy would not back down.
To prevent people moving from the east.
The city had been split at the end of the war and the west enjoyed a higher standard of living.
Many skilled people left East Germany for the West. This loss of citizens was humiliating for communism.
Berlin was a focus of Cold War tensions with Khrushchev trying to force the west out of Berlin.
It was to prevent refugees escaping to the west.
The East German authorities said it was to keep spies from the west out of East Berlin.
To try to help the Soviet Union maintain control of its east European satellites.


Czechoslovakia / the Prague Spring (1968)

Why did the USSR invade Czechoslovakia in 1968?
Why was the Soviet Union worried by developments in Czechoslovakia in Spring 1968?
The USSR thought they would lose control as Dubcek launched reforms known as the “Prague Spring”. Dubcek planned to modernise communism with “Socialism with a human face” by introducing free expression and ending rule of terror by secret police. There was talk of setting up the Social democratic Party as a rival to the Communists. The USSR thought this would threaten their control of Eastern Europe.
Dubcek assured Brezhnev that he did not want to leave the Warsaw Pact but Brezhnev knew that if control was lessened in one country others would follow. This would undermine Soviet control. The USSR feared that Czechoslovakia would ally with Yugoslavia and Romania.
Czechoslovakia was too important to the security of the Soviet Union as it had borders with West Germany and the USSR.
Brezhnev was the new Soviet leader and he was just as determined as previous leaders to maintain Soviet control of eastern Europe and he felt this control was being threatened.




Poland's Solidarity Movement

What was the Solidarity?
- A trade union of workers in Poland at the end of 1980s.
- It was led by Lech Wałęsa
- backed by popular opinion and the use of non-violent methods to seek workers rights, more freedom of speech, the right to strike, and release of political prisoners.
- the 1st non–communist party-controlled trade union in a Warsaw Pact country.
- reached 10 million members before 1981 (1/3 of Poland's work force).


Why was the Solidarity Movement important?
- Solidarity began calling for greater political and religious freedoms.
- Government feared to take action!
- The banning and imprisonment did not work. Solidarity went from strength to strength.
- a symbol for opposition to communism. It set an example to the rest of Eastern Europe. It was the first successful movement in the late 1980s within the Warsaw Pact against the communist dictatorship.
- It pushed the USSR under Gorbachev to implement his polices of 'Perestroika' and 'Glasnost', which eventually led to the fall of the Warsaw Pact and the USSR.



8 mark question: Poland's Solidarity Movement / Gorbachev / Fall of the Soviet Union

How important was Solidarity in the decline of Soviet influence in Eastern Europe?
How far can decline of Soviet power in Eastern Europe be blamed on the Solidarity Movement?
Gorbachev was responsible for the collapse of Soviet control over Eastern Europe. How far?

Factor #1 - Solidarity

Very important as it brought change and it set an example to others.

It challenged the USSR by showing that if people stood together against oppression, it would force the government to give way through popular opinion and non-violent methods.

The government in Poland had lost the confidence of the people and Solidarity showed that a Communist government could not solve Poland’s economic problems.

Solidarity began calling for greater political and religious freedoms. As it was strong, the government feared to take action, as did the Soviet Union. The USSR did not use force to ensure this unlike in Hungary and Czechoslovakia.

The movement showed that tough moves of threats, banning and imprisonment did not work. Solidarity only grew stronger. In the free elections of 1989, Solidarity won massive support and Walesa became first non-communist President.

This set an example to communist control for the rest of eastern Europe.


Factor #2 - Gorbachev

Gorbachev created a more open atmosphere and no longer used armed forces to enforce Soviet rule over Satellite states. This helped to reduce spending on the military.

Gorbachev proposed that the Soviet economy should be improved by “perestroika” – restructuring, including capitalist practices. More competition in industry was encouraged.

Interest in free market capitalism and trade with the West increased. This also increased Soviet awareness of better standards of living in the West.

He introduced “glasnost” – openness to restoring faith in government and end corruption. People who criticised the government should no longer be persecuted. This allowed discontent to grow.

He proposed a cut back in money spent on the arms race and signed arms limitation treaty with the USA.
He sought to establish more friendly relations with the west and signed arms reduction treaties.

In 1989, communist regimes of eastern Europe toppled one by one as Gorbachev's reforms signalled that the Soviet Union could no longer intervene.

BUT: The problem was that the reforms were introduced too quickly and without preparation. The Soviet Union was in confusion and economic chaos.


Factor #3 - Weaknesses of the Communist system and the Warsaw Pact

Communism was seen by many as corrupt and Soviet industry and agriculture inefficient.
The Soviet Union was in economic crisis. Food shortages were everywhere. Large sums of money were being spent on defence at the expense of many citizens living in poverty. An expensive war was being fought in Afghanistan in 1979.

Crisis in Soviet Union and communism played its part: Communism is based on equality and fairness but many had lost faith in it as there was much corruption; Industry and agriculture were inefficient leading to significant levels of imports; Large sums of money were being spent on defence and the Afghanistan war.
Warsaw Pact countries were clearly behind western countries in both economic and social development. The economy of the Soviet Union was failing.

Corruption ran too deeply for the changes to happen. His withdrawal of Red Army support for other communist countries resulted in one by one the communist governments coming to an end.

Communist governments in E. Europe could no longer expect support from Red Army to exercise control.
There was much corruption with Party members living in luxury whilst the workers were living in poverty.
The people no longer had faith in their government as they saw the West getting richer.

Industry and agriculture were not efficient and there was the need for expensive imports.